Ping Xu, THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, Vol.27, No.3, 2010.

This paper examines the spatial and religious meanings of Tibetan temples and their integrative relationship with the surrounding landscape. By using the methods of field investigation and overlay mapping, the author found that Tibetan villages and their temples are located at least 3,000 meters above sea level The mandala is the Buddhist cosmic model that shows the universe as centered around the Buddhas dwelling place. This paper discusses how the mandala model systematically structures the spatial organization of Tibetan temples and their surroundings at various scales from stone landmarks to the stupa, the Buddha hall, the temple complex, the landscape setting, and the holy mountains. The Tibetan built environment, like the mandala, nests a series of levels that are isomorphic, with bases becoming smaller and elevations higher towards the center. In unifying spatial structures, the mandala model interweaves landscape with architecture , religious meanings, and human movements. Architectural design and symbolism instill religious attributes in the landscape, and in turn, the landscape, serving as a matrix, imbues the architecture with the meanings of time and space. Insight into this integrative relationship can help us protect the unique and sacred realm of Tibet and enhance our understanding of the continuity of architecture and landscape in general. Exploring cultural models directly influences the way in which historical buildings and their surroundings are studied ' exhibited, and protected.